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- What is MySQL?
MySQL is the world’s most popular open source database. According to DB-Engines, MySQL ranks as the second-most-popular database, behind Oracle Database. MySQL powers many of the most accessed applications, including Facebook, Twitter, Netflix, Uber, Airbnb, Shopify, and Booking.com.
Since MySQL is open source, it includes numerous features developed in close cooperation with users over more than 25 years. So it’s very likely that your favorite application or programming language is supported by MySQL Database.
How do you pronounce “MySQL”?
“My ess-cue-el” is the “official” way to pronounce “MySQL,” but pronouncing it “my sequel” is common too.
What is the name of the MySQL dolphin?
The MySQL logo is a dolphin named Sakila. The name was chosen from a large list suggested by users during the “Name the Dolphin” contest. The winning name was submitted by Ambrose Twebaze, an open source software developer from Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), Africa.
MySQL is a relational database management system
Databases are the essential data repository for all software applications. For example, whenever someone conducts a web search, logs in to an account, or completes a transaction, a database system is storing the information so it can be accessed in the future.
A relational database stores data in separate tables rather than putting all the data in one big storeroom. The database structure is organized into physical files optimized for speed. The logical data model, with objects such as data tables, views, rows, and columns, offers a flexible programming environment. You set up rules governing the relationships between different data fields, such as one to one, one to many, unique, required, or optional, and “pointers” between different tables. The database enforces these rules so that with a well-designed database your application never sees data that’s inconsistent, duplicated, orphaned, out of date, or missing.
The “SQL” part of “MySQL” stands for “Structured Query Language.” SQL is the most common standardized language used to access databases. Depending on your programming environment, you might enter SQL directly (for example, to generate reports), embed SQL statements into code written in another language, or use a language-specific API that hides the SQL syntax.
MySQL is open source
Open source means it’s possible for anyone to use and modify the software. Anybody can download MySQL software from the internet and use it without paying for it. You can also change its source code to suit your needs. MySQL software uses the GNU General Public License (GPL) to define what you may and may not do with the software in different situations.
If you feel uncomfortable with the GNU GPL or need to embed MySQL code into a commercial application, you can buy a commercially licensed version from Oracle. See the MySQL Licensing Information section for more information.
MySQL: the #1 choice for developers
MySQL consistently ranks as the most popular database for developers, according to surveys from Stack Overflow and JetBrains. Developers love its high performance, reliability, and ease of use.
MySQL supports the following popular development languages and drivers:
| PHP | Python | Java/JDBC | Node.js |
| Perl | Ruby | Go | Rust |
| C | C++ | C#/.NET | ODBC |
MySQL has also become the database of choice for many of the most successful open source applications, including WordPress, Drupal, Joomla, and Magento. MySQL is the “M” in the highly popular open source LAMP (Linux, Apache, MySQL, Perl/Python/PHP) stack to develop web applications.
MySQL works in client/server or embedded systems
MySQL Database is a client/server system that consists of a multithreaded SQL server that supports different back ends, several different client programs and libraries, administrative tools, and a wide range of application-programming interfaces (APIs). We also provide MySQL as an embedded multithreaded library that you can link into your application to get a smaller, faster, easier-to-manage standalone product.
MySQL benefits
MySQL is fast, reliable, scalable, and easy to use. It was originally developed to handle large databases quickly and has been used in highly demanding production environments for many years.
Although MySQL is under constant development, it offers a rich and useful set of functions. MySQL’s connectivity, speed, and security make it highly suited for accessing databases on the internet.
MySQL’s key benefits include
Ease of use: Developers can install MySQL in minutes, and the database is easy to manage.
Reliability: MySQL is one of the most mature and widely used databases. It has been tested in a wide variety of scenarios for more than 25 years, including by many of the world’s largest companies. Organizations depend on MySQL to run business-critical applications because of its reliability.
Scalability: MySQL scales to meet the demands of the most accessed applications. MySQL’s native replication architecture enables organizations such as Facebook to scale applications to support billions of users.
Performance: MySQL HeatWave is faster and less expensive than other database services, as demonstrated by multiple standard industry benchmarks, including TPC-H, TPC-DS, and CH-benCHmark.
High availability: MySQL delivers a complete set of native, fully integrated replication technologies for high availability and disaster recovery. For business-critical applications, and to meet service-level agreement commitments, customers can achieve
- Recovery point objective = 0 (zero data loss)
- Recovery time objective = seconds (automatic failover)
Security: Data security entails protection and compliance with industry and government regulations, including the European Union General Data Protection Regulation, the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, and the Defense Information Systems Agency’s Security Technical Implementation Guides. MySQL Enterprise Edition provides advanced security features, including authentication/authorization, transparent data encryption, auditing, data masking, and a database firewall.
Flexibility: The MySQL Document Store gives users maximum flexibility in developing traditional SQL and NoSQL schema-free database applications. Developers can mix and match relational data and JSON documents in the same database and application.
MySQL use cases
Cloud applications: MySQL is very popular in the cloud. MySQL HeatWave is a fully managed database service, powered by the integrated HeatWave in-memory query accelerator. It’s the only cloud database service that combines transactions, analytics, and machine learning (ML) services into one MySQL Database, delivering real-time, secure analytics without the complexity, latency, and cost of ETL duplication. MySQL HeatWave is 6.5X faster than Amazon Redshift at half the cost, 7X faster than Snowflake at one-fifth the cost, and 1,400X faster than Amazon Aurora at half the cost. With MySQL HeatWave ML, developers and data analysts can build, train, and explain machine learning models in a fully automated way—25X faster than Amazon Redshift ML at 1% of the cost.
MySQL is extremely popular for
Ecommerce: Many of the world’s largest ecommerce applications (for example, Shopify, Uber, and Booking.com) run their transactional systems on MySQL. It’s a popular choice for managing user profiles, credentials, user content, financial data including payments, and fraud detection.
Social platforms: Facebook, Twitter, and LinkedIn are among the world’s largest social networks that rely on MySQL.
Content management: Unlike single-purpose document databases, MySQL enables both SQL and NoSQL with a single database. The MySQL Document Store enables CRUD operations and the power of SQL to query data from JSON documents for reporting and analytics.
SaaS and ISVs: More than 2,000 ISVs, OEMs, and VARs, including Ericsson, F5, and IBM, rely on MySQL as their embedded database to make their applications, hardware, and appliances more competitive, bring them to market faster, and lower their cost of goods sold. MySQL is also the database behind popular SaaS applications, including Zendesk and HubSpot.
Other popular applications using MySQL include ones for online gaming, digital marketing, retail point-of-sale systems, and Internet of Things monitoring systems.
On-premises applications with MySQL Enterprise Edition: MySQL Enterprise Edition includes the most comprehensive set of advanced features, management tools, and technical support to achieve the highest levels of MySQL scalability, security, reliability, and uptime. It reduces the risk, cost, and complexity in developing, deploying, and managing business-critical MySQL applications. It provides security features, including MySQL Enterprise Backup, Monitor, Firewall, Audit, Transparent Data Encryption, and Authentication, to help customers protect data and achieve regulatory and industry compliance.
Learn more about MySQL HeatWave
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MySQL HeatWave Database Service
One MySQL Database service for transactions, analytics, and machine learning (ML). Real-time, secure analytics without the complexity, latency, and cost of extract, transform, and load (ETL) duplication. Available on Oracle Cloud Infrastructure (OCI), Amazon Web Services (AWS), and Microsoft Azure.
Why choose MySQL HeatWave?
Simplicity of transaction and real-time analytics in one service
Eliminate the cost and complexity of separate analytics database, ML, and ETL services. Avoid the latency and security risks of data movement between data stores.
Unmatched price-performance
MySQL HeatWave is 6.5X faster than Amazon Redshift at half the cost, 7X faster than Snowflake at one-fifth the cost, and 1,400X faster than Amazon Aurora at half the cost.
Ready for the distributed cloud
Deploy MySQL HeatWave on OCI, AWS, Azure, or in your data center.
Learn more about MySQL HeatWave on AWS (PDF)
See what’s possible with MySQL HeatWave (2:31)
MySQL HeatWave customer successes on AWS and OCI
MySQL HeatWave customers significantly improve productivity while reducin
| Key capabilities | Available on OCI | Available on AWS |
|---|---|---|
| Fully managed service | YES | YES |
| OLTP and OLAP in MySQL | YES | YES |
| Query acceleration for analytics and mixed workloads | YES | YES |
| Data compression | YES | YES |
| Machine learning–powered automation (MySQL Autopilot for HeatWave and OLTP)* | YES | YES |
| Advanced security* | YES | YES |
| In-database machine learning (HeatWave AutoML) | YES | YES |
| Scale-out data management | YES | Coming soon |
| Interactive query and data management console | Coming soon | YES |
| Performance and workload monitoring from the console | Coming soon | YES |
| Adding HeatWave to any MySQL shape | Coming soon | YES |
* Auto thread pooling and auto shape prediction in MySQL Autopilot as well as the MySQL HeatWave database firewall will be available soon on OCI.
MySQL HeatWave: Architected for performance and scalability
SQL vs MySQL
- Last Updated : 27 May, 2022
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SQL is also pronounced as the Structured Query Language. It is a fourth-generation programming language. Its purpose is to manage data stored in relational database management systems. It is mainly useful for handling structured data where relations exist between various data entities.
MySQL is an open-source RDBMS developed by MySQL AB and owned by Oracle Corporation. It is a combination of two words – ‘My’ and ‘SQL’. ‘My’ is the name of one of the co-founders Michael Wideness’s daughter and ‘SQL’ stands for Structured Query Language. MySQL is written in C and C++ programming languages. It supports Linux, Solaris, macOS, Windows and FreeBSD operating systems.
Following is a table of differences between SQL and MySQL:
| Sr. No. | SQLhttps://40aa597e012b1cf58808e9311f2f6c1f.safeframe.googlesyndication.com/safeframe/1-0-40/html/container.html | MySQL |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | It is a structured query programming language that manages the relational database management system. | It is a relational database management system that uses SQL. It supports all the basic programming languages like C, C++, Perl, PHP, Python, and Ruby. |
| 2. | It is not an open-source language. | MySQL is an open-source platform. It allows access to anyone. |
| 3. | In a structured query language syntax and format are fixed and easy to use. It starts with the clause and ends with a semicolon. | It is software hence it does not have any commands or a particular format. |
| 4. | It supports only a single storage engine for different operations. | MySQL supports different storage engines for different functions and operations. |
| 5. | It supports user-defined functions and XML. | It does not support any user-defined function and XML. |
| 6. | SQL servers are secured as no third party or outsiders are allowed to manipulate data. | MySQL is not secure due to its open-source nature. It gives access to data manipulation and modification to unauthorized users. |
| 7. | In SQL, the server and database work independently. | MySQL servers do not work independently from databases. |
| 8. | It is available in many languages. | It is available only in simple English language. |
| 9. | It does not support any connectors. | It supports connectors like Workbench Tool for building databases. |
| 10. | SQL follows a simple standard format without many or regular updates. | MySQL has numerous variants and gets frequent updates. |
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Dec 07, 2022
Domantas G.
5min Read
MySQL vs SQL: Overview, Similarities, Differences
SQL Server vs MySQL is a hot argument since both are the two most popular database management systems out there. In this article, we will explain what they are and how they differ so you can pick the most fitting one for your project.
- RDBMS and SQL A Short Introduction
- SQL Server vs MySQL Overview and Similarities
- SQL Server vs MySQL Key Differences
RDBMS and SQL: A Short Introduction
Before we compare SQL Server vs MySQL, let’s start from the basics.
A Database Management System is a collection of programs that enable users to access, manipulate, and display the data stored within databases. It has a lot of types, with the Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) being the most well-known.
RDBMS, as its name suggests, is a system used to manage a relational database. Within it, data organization is defined as a relationship between columns and rows in a bunch of tables. Each column represents a specific attribute of data, while each row records its value. Both SQL Server and MySQL fall under this category.
Relational databases are operated, secured, optimized, and maintained using Structured Query Language (SQL). Its syntaxes are almost similar in most RDBMS software, with some variations here and there.
SQL Server vs MySQL: Overview and Similarities
Before we compare their differences, let’s start with a brief overview of our options:
What is SQL Server?
The SQL Server, also known as Microsoft SQL Server (MSSQL), has been around far longer than MySQL. SQL Server was developed by Microsoft in the 80s. Since then, it has become the go-to platform for large-scale enterprises due to its scalability and reliability.
Microsoft offers tools and services for data management and business intelligence as a part of the MSSQL. For data management, there’s SQL Server Integration Services (SSIS) and Data Quality Services, to mention a few. For data analysis, there’s SQL Server Reporting Services (SSRS) and SQL Server Analysis Services (SSAS).
What is MySQL?
Developed in the mid-90s by MySQL AB (later acquired by Oracle), MySQL was one of the first open-source database management systems and remains so to this day. While it has a lot of variants, they are not too different in terms of syntax and basic functionality.
It is typically used in conjunction with PHP and Apache Web Server, on top of a Linux distribution. This phenomenon leads to the famous LAMP (Linux, Apache, MySQL, PHP) acronym.
If you wish to read more about this topic, check out this article.
Similarities
Since SQL Server and MySQL are RDBMS, they share a few common features:
- Scalable and high-performing — they’re both as efficient in handling smaller-scope projects as they are for bigger ones.
- Multi-database support — users can host many databases on one server.
- Parameters — both use foreign and primary key constraints to define tabular relationships.
- Index-usage — both use indexes to optimize performance and to sort data.
However, many developers tend to specialize in one system due to the differences in their underlying architecture and certain features. We will discuss this further below.
SQL Server vs MySQL: Key Differences
Now that we’ve got an outline of what these systems are and what they do, let us look at several key differences between MySQL and SQL Server:
Cost
When it comes to SQL vs MySQL, the easiest difference between the two would be the cost. Microsoft requires users to buy licenses to access SQL Server’s full features. In contrast, MySQL falls under the General Public License (open source), which makes it completely free to use. The latter only requires you to pay for technical assistance should you need it.
Default Compatibility
SQL Server is mainly intended for developers who are using .NET as their development language, while MySQL can work with just any language, most notably PHP.
MySQL is compatible with every major operating system out there, even though it is traditionally associated with Linux. Meanwhile, SQL Server used to run exclusively on Windows, but this has changed since 2016 when Microsoft announced Linux and Mac support. However, so far you can only run the latter in a Docker container.
Syntax
While both MySQL and SQL Server are based on SQL, differences in syntax are still prominent and worth keeping in mind. For instance, look at the following example:
MICROSOFT SQL SERVER
SELECT TOP 3 WITH TIES * FROM person ORDER BY age ASC
MYSQL
SELECT age FROM person ORDER BY age ASC LIMIT 3
Both chunks of code achieve the same result — returning three entries with the youngest age from a table named Person.
Of course, the syntax is subjective, so there’s no clear winner in this round of SQL vs MySQL. Go with whichever seems more intuitive for you. The full list of implementational changes between MySQL and SQL Server can be found here.
Storage engines
Another big difference between the two is the way they store data. SQL Server uses a single storage engine developed by Microsoft. In contrast, MySQL gives developers much more flexibility, as they can use different engines for different tables that are based on speed, reliability, or some other dimensions. Two of the most popular MySQL storage engines are InnoDB and MyISAM.
Filtering Method
MySQL users, tables, and rows can be filtered in several ways. However, it requires users to run multiple queries on each database individually, as opposed to SQL Server’s database-per-database, row-based filtering. The latter streamlines the whole process so developers can filter out rows without considering the number of databases hosted on the server.
Backup and Restoration
When you back up a MySQL database, the data are extracted as SQL statements. As a result, backing up and restoring a huge amount of data can take forever due to the execution of multiple SQL statements.
Furthermore, to avoid inconsistency, MySQL will lock the database during the backup process. This lock makes your database unusable.
However, you can override this by using the mysqldump utility alongside a specific flag:
--single-transaction
This will backup your database tables without locking them. In case you want to back up large tables, use the –quick flag as well.
Meanwhile, users of SQL Server doesn’t have to go through that situation. SQL Server won’t lock the database, so you still can use it during the backup process.
Security
Both tools are EC2 compliant, which means they adhere to security standards designed for safe cloud computing. However, there’s a notable difference in how they restrict access to the database.
MySQL allows its database files to be edited and accessed by other processes during runtime. This, however, isn’t the case with SQL Server, as its users are required to run an instance to perform the function. It makes SQL Server less prone to hacking as the data cannot be manipulated or accessed directly.
Community Support
While you can pay for MySQL support, the scenario rarely arises due to its stellar community contribution and support. Most people do not have to reach out for official assistance as they can search the web and find a ton of solutions.
On the other hand, since SQL Server is a paid service, you won’t get much community support. If you need any assistance, you can refer to its official support page.
Integrated Development Environment
It is important to note that both RDMBSs support different Integrated Development Environment (IDE) tools. These tools offer a cohesive environment for development and your choice entirely depends on your project.
The best IDE tool for MySQL is MySQL Workbench, while SQL Server Management Studio is the best option for SQL Server. Both have their pros and cons and might tip the balance if you have nothing else left to base your decision on.
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Conclusion
In this guide, we have discussed the strengths and weaknesses of SQL Server vs MySQL.
Ultimately, the choice is yours. As a rule of thumb, if you’re developing small or medium-sized applications and predominantly use PHP, go with MySQL. On the other hand, if you’re interested in building large-scale, secure, resilient enterprise applications, SQL Server should be right up your alley.
So which one would you choose? Let us know in the comments below!
THE AUTHOR
Domantas G.
Domantas leads the content and SEO teams forward with fresh ideas and out of the box approaches. Armed with extensive SEO and marketing knowledge, he aims to spread the word of Hostinger to every corner of the world. During his free time, Domantas likes to hone his web development skills and travel to exotic places.
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Nicolas Riesch
March 05 2018
You may be interested by RSQL, a very simplified clone of MS SQL Server that can execute basic TSQL scripts. It is still early beta. And many features must be added yet, but for simple C# applications, it may be good enough. It runs on Linux and it is free (GPL license).
Vikash kumar singh
March 08 2018
Very helpful tutorial. Thanks.
Asiago philip
March 24 2018
I want to know the technical deference between sql server and mysql
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August 15 2021
Is the SQL Server support availabel at hostinger for database?
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- How to Download MySQL
- MySQL is a database management system and free, open-source software, developed and supported by Oracle Corporation. It is exceptionally reliable and easy to use. In this tutorial, we are going to explain the steps on how to Download and Install MySQL on Windows 10 systems.
- How to Download MySQL
- On your web browser, search engine type Download MySQL. Click on the first link in the web search, mysql.com/downloads. It will take you to the MySQL download page.
- Scroll to where you see MySQL Community GPL Downloads, click it.
- Now on the MySQL Community download page, click MySQL Installer for Windows. It brings you to the My Community Download Page. MySQL Ins
- Where you see, operating system, select Microsoft Windows.
- You will see two windows (x86, 32-bit), MSI Installers, one of smaller size and the other of larger size. Select the one with the larger size (405.2M) because you do not have to connect to the internet
- On the next page at the bottom, select No thanks, just start my download.
- A dialog box will appear requesting you to save the file. Click Save File. The file is downloaded.
- Read: Difference between SQL and MySQL.
- How to Install MySQL on Windows 11/10
- In the Explorer, double click the MySQL Installer. It will then prepare the installer.
- A window will appear asking you ‘Do you want to allow the following program to install software on your computer‘ Click Yes. The installation will start.
- You will see a MySQL Installer Wizard. Now choose a setup type; select Full because it includes all the products available in this catalog. Then Next.
- If you try to click Next, a warning will pop up stating that ‘some programs will not be installed or upgraded on the Check Requirement window.
- Do you want to continue’ (see photo above), click Yes?
- On the Installation window. Click Execute. You will see your programs installed one by one. It will show which program was installed and which program failed. Then Next.
- On the Product Configuration window, click Next.
- On the Installation Complete window, click Finish. MySQL is Installed.
- I hope this post is useful to you. If you have any questions, please comment below.Download PC Repair Tool to quickly find & fix Windows errors automat
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- What Is SQL & How Does It Work? A Guide to Structured Query Language
Sakshi Gupta | 7 minute read | October 6, 2021
- In this article
- What is SQL And How Does it Work?
- What is SQL Used for?
- What Is SQL And How Does It Work: Learning SQL With Some Basic SQL…
- SQL or Structured Query Language is a critical tool for data professionals. It is undoubtedly the most important language for getting a job in the field of data analysis or data sciences.
- Millions of data points are being generated every minute and raw data does not have any story to tell. After all this data gets stored in databases and professionals use SQL to extract this data for further analysis.
- In this blog post, we will cover what is SQL and how does it work. SQL is fairly simple, thanks to easy syntaxes of this language. Let’s dig into understanding this Structured Query Language by asking this simple question…
- What is SQL And How Does it Work?
- SQL is the most common language for extracting and organising data that is stored in a relational database. A database is a table that consists of rows and columns. SQL is the language of databases. It facilitates retrieving specific information from databases that are further used for analysis. Even when the analysis is being done on another platform like Python or R, SQL would be needed to extract the data that you need from a company’s database.
- SQL manages a large amount of data, especially if there is a lot of data that is being written simultaneously and there are too many data transactions.
- There are different versions and frameworks for SQL, the most commonly used is MySQL. MySQL is an open-source solution that helps facilitate SQL’s role in managing back-end data for web applications. Companies such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, etc. all use SQL for back-end data storage and data processing solutions. When an SQL query is written & run (or parsed), it is processed by a query optimiser. The query reaches SQL server, where it compiles in three phases; Parsing, Binding and Optimisation.
- Parsing – A process to check the syntax
- Binding – A process to check the query semantics
- Optimisation – A process to generate the query execution plan
- In the third step, all possible permutations and combinations are generated to find the most effective query execution plan in a reasonable time. The shorter the query takes, the better it is.
- What is SQL Used for?
- Now that we understand what is SQL and how does it work, let’s try to see what SQL can do. This programming language has various uses for data analysts & data science professionals. It is particularly helpful because it can:
- Execute queries against a database
- Retrieve data from a database
- Insert records into a database
- Update records in a database
- Delete records from a database
- Create new databases, or new tables in a database
- Create stored procedures & views in a database
- Set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
- Imagine how difficult life would be if we did not have a way to control the database in this format. After getting a sense of what SQL is used for, let’s try our hands at learning SQL on an actual database.
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- What Is SQL And How Does It Work: Learning SQL With Some Basic SQL Commands
- We have learned above what SQL is used for, so let’s try out each of these things on a real dataset. As an example, we have chosen a database of customers at an e-commerce store. This is what it looks like this:
- Here are some commands that we will be learning about, and later practicing as well.
- If you notice, the commands ‘create, alter & drop’ define the complete structure of data. They come under the ‘Data Definition Language’ set of commands. Similarly, ‘select, insert, update, delete’ fall under Data Manipulation Language & ‘grant, revoke’ come under Data Control Language set of commands.
- Let’s write some SQL commands and understand what the outcomes would be like:
- Here is how you can write the syntax for other functions:
- How SQL Works When Joining Tables
- An SQL join clause is like a join operation in relational algebra. It combines the columns from one or more tables in a relational database to create a set that can be saved as a table or used as it is. A JOIN is a means for combining columns from one or more tables by using values common to each. A critical skill, and a frequently asked interview question, JOINS help you get a lot of work done with complex databases. Having the ability to manipulate JOIN queries with precision will give you an added advantage.
- There are 4 major JIONS to combine data or rows from two or more tables based on a common field between them. Different types of Joins are:
- INNER JOIN
- LEFT JOIN
- RIGHT JOIN
- FULL JOIN
- A JOIN is an SQL instruction in the FROM clause of your query that is used to identify the tables you are querying and how they should be combined. But before we actually start joining tables, let’s learn about primary key & foreign key.
- Primary Keys
- A primary key is a column (or sometimes set of columns) in a table that is a unique identifier for each row. It is very common for databases to have a column named id (customerID, emailID, EmployeeID) as a primary key for each table.
- Foreign Keys
- Foreign keys are columns in a table that specify a link to a primary key in another table. For instance, in the image above, the artist_id column in the albums table is a foreign key to id in the artists table.
- Coming back to JOINS, let’s look at the below datasets to understand how they would work:
- For instance, you want to have a table that contains all your user and event table data together
- For this, you will use an Outer Join. An Outer Join will combine the columns from all tables on one or more common dimensions when possible, and includes all data from all tables.
- What if you want to have a table that contains only users that have done an action?
- This is where an Inner Join comes in play. An Inner Join would combine the columns on a common dimension (the first N columns) when possible, and only include the data for the columns that share the same values in the common N column(s). In the above example, the User_ID would be the common dimension used for the inner join.
- Now, what if you want to have a table that contains all the users’ data and only actions that those users have done? Actions performed by other users, not in the user table should not be included?
- You would use a Left Join to join the tables together. A Left Join combines the columns on a common dimension (the first N columns) when possible, returning all rows from the first table with the matching rows in the consecutive tables. The result is NULL in the consecutive tables when there is no match. In this case, we would make the User Table the first (left table) to use for the Left Join.
- A Right Join works exactly like a Left Join, with the only distinction being in the base table. In the Left Join, table 1 (left table) was considered to be the base, whereas, in the Right Join, table 2 (right table) will be considered as a base. A Right Join combines the columns on a common dimension (the first N columns) when possible, returning all rows from the second/right table with the matching rows in the first/left table.
- Seems complicated? It really isn’t when you start joining the tables in real-time data. SQL being as simple as it is, it can be integrated & used within multiple languages like R, Python, Scala, and Hadoop. This makes data science & big data management an easy-breezy tasks to do!
- In this blog, we have summarized what is SQL and how does it work, but there is a lot more to learn in it to become an expert (here is a blog listing the top 10 best SQL certifications to grow your skillset). SQL is a must-have skill for any data analytics or data science professionals. This is, in fact, a very commonly covered topic in Data Analytics Interviews. In a world where data is the new oil, finding out what is SQL and how does it work, and understanding what is SQL used for can take you a long way ahead.
- Here is a post with detailed 105 most asked SQL interview questions along with the best ways to answer them.
- To learn this and much more, join Springboard’s Data Analytics Career Track program. With 1:1 mentoring-led, project-driven approach, detailed curriculum, and real-life examples, you will become an expert at SQL & data analytics in 6 months! Also, did we mention that the career track program offers a job guarantee? Apply Now!
- Since you’re here…
- Switching to a career in data analytics is possible, no matter your background. We’ve helped over 10,000 students make it happen. Check out our free data analytics curriculum to gauge your interest, or go all-in with our Data Analytics Bootcamp.
- About Sakshi Gupta
- Sakshi is a Senior Associate Editor at Springboard. She is a technology enthusiast who loves to read and write about emerging tech. She is a content marketer and has experience working in the Indian and US markets.
- Download our 2022 data analytics salary guide
- Take a closer look at the factors that influence compensation in data analytics. Stay ahead of the competition with job interview tips and tricks, plus advice on how to land the perfect role.Download now
- SQL is a database computer language designed for the retrieval and management of data in a relational databases like MySQL, MS Access, SQL Server, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres etc. SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL was developed in the 1970s by IBM Computer Scientists.
- This SQL tutorial helps you learn SQL in simple and easy steps so that you can start your database programming quickly. It covers most of the important concepts related to SQL for a basic to advanced understanding of SQL and to get a feel of how SQL works.
- Why to Learn SQL?
- SQL (Structured Query Language) is a MUST for the students and working professionals to become a great Software Engineer specially when they are working in Software Development Domain. SQL is the most common language used almost in every application software including banking, finance, education, security etc. to store and manipulate data.
- SQL is fairly easy to learn, so if you are starting to learn any programming language then it is very much advised that you should also learn SQL and other Database related concepts to become a complete Software Programmer. There are many good reasons which makes SQL as the first choice of any programmer:
- SQL is the standard language for any Relational Database System. All the Relational Data Base Management Systems (RDBMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database language.
- Also, software industry is using different dialects of SQL, such as −
- MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
- Oracle using PL/SQL,
- MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.
- Applications of SQL
- SQL is one of the most widely used Query Language over the databases. SQL provides following functionality to the database programmers:
- Execute different database queries against a database.
- Define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
- Create data in a relational database management system.
- Access data from the relational database management system.
- Create and drop databases and tables.
- Create and maintain database users.
- Create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
- Set permissions on tables, procedures and views.
- Audiences
- This SQL tutorial is prepared for beginners to help them understand the basic as well as the advanced concepts related to SQL languages. This tutorial will give you enough understanding on the various concepts of SQL along with suitable examples.
- Prerequisites
- Before you start practicing with various types of SQL examples given in this tutorial, I am assuming that you are already aware about what is a Database, especially the basics of RDBMS and associated concepts.
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- What Is a Database?
- Database defined
- A database is an organized collection of structured information, or data, typically stored electronically in a computer system. A database is usually controlled by a database management system (DBMS). Together, the data and the DBMS, along with the applications that are associated with them, are referred to as a database system, often shortened to just database.
- Data within the most common types of databases in operation today is typically modeled in rows and columns in a series of tables to make processing and data querying efficient. The data can then be easily accessed, managed, modified, updated, controlled, and organized. Most databases use structured query language (SQL) for writing and querying data.
- Learn more about Oracle Database
- What is Structured Query Language (SQL)?
- SQL is a programming language used by nearly all relational databases to query, manipulate, and define data, and to provide access control. SQL was first developed at IBM in the 1970s with Oracle as a major contributor, which led to implementation of the SQL ANSI standard, SQL has spurred many extensions from companies such as IBM, Oracle, and Microsoft. Although SQL is still widely used today, new programming languages are beginning to appear.
- Evolution of the database
- Databases have evolved dramatically since their inception in the early 1960s. Navigational databases such as the hierarchical database (which relied on a tree-like model and allowed only a one-to-many relationship), and the network database (a more flexible model that allowed multiple relationships), were the original systems used to store and manipulate data. Although simple, these early systems were inflexible. In the 1980s, relational databases became popular, followed by object-oriented databases in the 1990s. More recently, NoSQL databases came about as a response to the growth of the internet and the need for faster speed and processing of unstructured data. Today, cloud databases and self-driving databases are breaking new ground when it comes to how data is collected, stored, managed, and utilized.
- What’s the difference between a database and a spreadsheet?
- Databases and spreadsheets (such as Microsoft Excel) are both convenient ways to store information. The primary differences between the two are:
- How the data is stored and manipulated
- Who can access the data
- How much data can be stored
- Spreadsheets were originally designed for one user, and their characteristics reflect that. They’re great for a single user or small number of users who don’t need to do a lot of incredibly complicated data manipulation. Databases, on the other hand, are designed to hold much larger collections of organized information—massive amounts, sometimes. Databases allow multiple users at the same time to quickly and securely access and query the data using highly complex logic and language.
- Types of databases
- There are many different types of databases. The best database for a specific organization depends on how the organization intends to use the data.
- Relational databases became dominant in the 1980s. Items in a relational database are organized as a set of tables with columns and rows. Relational database technology provides the most efficient and flexible way to access structured information.
- Information in an object-oriented database is represented in the form of objects, as in object-oriented programming.
- A distributed database consists of two or more files located in different sites. The database may be stored on multiple computers, located in the same physical location, or scattered over different networks.
- A central repository for data, a data warehouse is a type of database specifically designed for fast query and analysis.
- A NoSQL, or nonrelational database, allows unstructured and semistructured data to be stored and manipulated (in contrast to a relational database, which defines how all data inserted into the database must be composed). NoSQL databases grew popular as web applications became more common and more complex.
- A graph database stores data in terms of entities and the relationships between entities.
- OLTP databases. An OLTP database is a speedy, analytic database designed for large numbers of transactions performed by multiple users.
- These are only a few of the several dozen types of databases in use today. Other, less common databases are tailored to very specific scientific, financial, or other functions. In addition to the different database types, changes in technology development approaches and dramatic advances such as the cloud and automation are propelling databases in entirely new directions. Some of the latest databases include
- An open source database system is one whose source code is open source; such databases could be SQL or NoSQL databases.
- A cloud database is a collection of data, either structured or unstructured, that resides on a private, public, or hybrid cloud computing platform. There are two types of cloud database models: traditional and database as a service (DBaaS). With DBaaS, administrative tasks and maintenance are performed by a service provider.
- Multimodel databases combine different types of database models into a single, integrated back end. This means they can accommodate various data types.
- Designed for storing, retrieving, and managing document-oriented information, document databases are a modern way to store data in JSON format rather than rows and columns.
- The newest and most groundbreaking type of database, self-driving databases (also known as autonomous databases) are cloud-based and use machine learning to automate database tuning, security, backups, updates, and other routine management tasks traditionally performed by database administrators.
- Learn more about self-driving databases
- What is database software?
- Database software is used to create, edit, and maintain database files and records, enabling easier file and record creation, data entry, data editing, updating, and reporting. The software also handles data storage, backup and reporting, multi-access control, and security. Strong database security is especially important today, as data theft becomes more frequent. Database software is sometimes also referred to as a “database management system” (DBMS).
- Database software makes data management simpler by enabling users to store data in a structured form and then access it. It typically has a graphical interface to help create and manage the data and, in some cases, users can construct their own databases by using database software.
- What is a database management system (DBMS)?
- A database typically requires a comprehensive database software program known as a database management system (DBMS). A DBMS serves as an interface between the database and its end users or programs, allowing users to retrieve, update, and manage how the information is organized and optimized. A DBMS also facilitates oversight and control of databases, enabling a variety of administrative operations such as performance monitoring, tuning, and backup and recovery.
- Some examples of popular database software or DBMSs include MySQL, Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL Server, FileMaker Pro, Oracle Database, and dBASE.
- What is a MySQL database?
- MySQL is an open source relational database management system based on SQL. It was designed and optimized for web applications and can run on any platform. As new and different requirements emerged with the internet, MySQL became the platform of choice for web developers and web-based applications. Because it’s designed to process millions of queries and thousands of transactions, MySQL is a popular choice for ecommerce businesses that need to manage multiple money transfers. On-demand flexibility is the primary feature of MySQL.
- MySQL is the DBMS behind some of the top websites and web-based applications in the world, including Airbnb, Uber, LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.
- Learn more about MySQL
- Using databases to improve business performance and decision-making
- With massive data collection from the Internet of Things transforming life and industry across the globe, businesses today have access to more data than ever before. Forward-thinking organizations can now use databases to go beyond basic data storage and transactions to analyze vast quantities of data from multiple systems. Using database and other computing and business intelligence tools, organizations can now leverage the data they collect to run more efficiently, enable better decision-making, and become more agile and scalable. Optimizing access and throughput to data is critical to businesses today because there is more data volume to track. It’s critical to have a platform that can deliver the performance, scale, and agility that businesses need as they grow over time.
- The self-driving database is poised to provide a significant boost to these capabilities. Because self-driving databases automate expensive, time-consuming manual processes, they free up business users to become more proactive with their data. By having direct control over the ability to create and use databases, users gain control and autonomy while still maintaining important security standards.
- Database challenges
- Today’s large enterprise databases often support very complex queries and are expected to deliver nearly instant responses to those queries. As a result, database administrators are constantly called upon to employ a wide variety of methods to help improve performance. Some common challenges that they face include:
- Absorbing significant increases in data volume. The explosion of data coming in from sensors, connected machines, and dozens of other sources keeps database administrators scrambling to manage and organize their companies’ data efficiently.
- Ensuring data security. Data breaches are happening everywhere these days, and hackers are getting more inventive. It’s more important than ever to ensure that data is secure but also easily accessible to users.
- Keeping up with demand. In today’s fast-moving business environment, companies need real-time access to their data to support timely decision-making and to take advantage of new opportunities.
- Managing and maintaining the database and infrastructure. Database administrators must continually watch the database for problems and perform preventative maintenance, as well as apply software upgrades and patches. As databases become more complex and data volumes grow, companies are faced with the expense of hiring additional talent to monitor and tune their databases.
- Removing limits on scalability. A business needs to grow if it’s going to survive, and its data management must grow along with it. But it’s very difficult for database administrators to predict how much capacity the company will need, particularly with on-premises databases.
- Ensuring data residency, data sovereignty, or latency requirements. Some organizations have use cases that are better suited to run on-premises. In those cases, engineered systems that are pre-configured and pre-optimized for running the database are ideal. Customers achieve higher availability, greater performance and up to 40% lower cost with Oracle Exadata, according to Wikibon’s recent analysis (PDF).
- Addressing all of these challenges can be time-consuming and can prevent database administrators from performing more strategic functions.
- How autonomous technology is improving database management
- Self-driving databases are the wave of the future—and offer an intriguing possibility for organizations that want to use the best available database technology without the headaches of running and operating that technology.
- Self-driving databases use cloud-based technology and machine learning to automate many of the routine tasks required to manage databases, such as tuning, security, backups, updates, and other routine management tasks. With these tedious tasks automated, database administrators are freed up to do more strategic work. The self-driving, self-securing, and self-repairing capabilities of self-driving databases are poised to revolutionize how companies manage and secure their data, enabling performance advantages, lower costs, and improved security.
- Future of databases and autonomous databases
- The first autonomous database was announced in late 2017, and multiple independent industry analysts quickly recognized the technology and its potential impact on computing.
- A Wikibon 2021 report (PDF) praised autonomous database technology, saying, “Oracle has by far the best Tier-1 Cloud Database Platform…Wikibon believes Oracle has the strongest Cloud Database Platform with Autonomous Database.”
- And KuppingerCole’s 2021 Leadership Compass (PDF) said, “The Oracle Autonomous Database, which completely automates provisioning, management, tuning, and upgrade processes of database instances without any downtime, not just substantially increases security and compliance of sensitive data stored in Oracle Databases but makes a compelling argument for moving this data to the Oracle Cloud.” Because Oracle Autonomous Database is built on the highly available and scalable architecture of Oracle Exadata, it’s possible to easily scale the database deployment as needs grow.
- Related products
- Oracle Autonomous Database
- Oracle Database
- Oracle Exadata
- Oracle Autonomous Data Warehouse
- Introduction
- Databases are the backbone of all modern information systems. Since computers store contemporary databases, the data can be any size and complexity. There are many ways to collect and arrange data depending on the usage and the data type.
- This article provides a comprehensive overview of databases and database systems.
- Database Definition
- A database is an organized set of logically connected data. The information transforms into helpful knowledge, structured and maintained to fit the user’s needs. Apart from storing the data itself, a database also keeps the relationships between data points.
- In the broader sense, a database is an integrated set of information about a system and the procedures for maintenance and usage. Unlike spreadsheets, multiple users and applications access the storage at once.
- What Are Databases Used For?
- Databases have a broad application spectrum. Typical examples include:
- Banking systems keep databases for clients, bank accounts, credits, transactions, etc.
- Airline traffic keeps the information about flights, ticket reservations, and similar. Airline companies are the first sector to use geographically distributed databases.
- Universities use databases to record information about students, applications, grades, courses, etc.
- Credit card transactions contain tabs on payments and generate monthly reports.
- Telecommunication companies store information about calls, generate monthly bills, track the communication line, etc.
- The finance sector tracks the sales and purchases of financial instruments such as bonds and shares.
- Commerce and e-commerce businesses store data about consumers, products, and various price catalogs.
- Manufacturing businesses manage supply chains, production lines, storages, generate invoices, etc.
- Human resources stores information about employees, paychecks, taxes, benefits, etc.
- The list above shows how crucial databases are for any business type. With modern user interfaces, the backend is hidden when accessing a database, so many users are unaware they use one daily.
- A Brief History of Databases
- The first automated database connects to Herman Hollerith, who patented the system for automatic data processing in 1884. The 1890 US census used the punched cards counter system, and the collection of cards represents the first automated database system.
- Each card had 80 columns and characterized information about a person. Usually, census information would take two years to process. However, the punch card system and the automated card reading mechanism took only around six weeks to process the data. The punched cards system was used throughout the 20th century, especially for voting and clocking in for work.
- After World War II, companies and government institutions started using computers for simple linear accounting databases. The first computerized databases were used for specific tasks and lacked flexibility.
- Databases in the 1960s
- In the 1960s, document databases had a dominant role. The first database management systems appeared in this decade, and they were used for big and complex projects, such as the Apollo moon landing.
- Databases in the 1970s
- Databases become a commercial reality in the 1970s. Hierarchical and network systems for managing data are introduced mainly for handling complex data structures, such as factory accounts, when purchasing raw materials.
- This decade includes the first-generation commercial DBMS, and some are still in use today. Several drawbacks are:
- The data was hard to retrieve. Companies used complex programs in the 1970s to access simple data.
- Limited data independence made information hard to change and update.
- No theoretical foundation for any database models.
- Databases in the 1980s
- The 1980s address the drawbacks of the previous decade. The relational data model appears during the 1970s, and the second-generation DBMS finds commercial business use in the 1980s. When using the relational model, all data is in a familiar tabular format. A relatively simple programming language (SQL) retrieves the data from the database.
- The new database model allowed easier data access to people who were not programmers, addressing the most significant issue with the previous models. The relational model was convenient for client/server communication, parallel data transfers, and a GUI made usage simpler.
- Databases in the 1990s
- The 1990s gave rise to internet application and data storage systems. Multimedia data (graphics, sound, pictures, and videos) became more common. Massive amounts of both structured and unstructured data were standard. Due to data complexity rising, relational database systems turned to the object-oriented approach.
- Databases in the 2000s
- Three new database types appear: XML, NoSQL and NewSQL databases.
- XML databases are a highly structured document-based type. Querying is allowed through XML attributes with varying degrees of flexibility.
- NoSQL databases answer the strong demand for highly flexible distributed database systems, which use eventual consistency and do not require a fixed schema. The NoSQL type is highly scalable, and stores denormalized data.
- NewSQL aims to combine the best attributes from NoSQL databases, such as scalability, while using SQL and maintaining ACID compliance.
- Different Types of Databases
- There are many different database types currently available, each with benefits and drawbacks. Every database type creates a specific environment for storing data and the relationship between information.
- Relational databases store data in table-like structures as rows and columns with a focus on data consistency. This database type focuses on relations between data, and it is the most widely used database type.
- Object-oriented databases combine the object-oriented programming (OOP) principles with relational database standards.
- Distributed databases spread across multiple sites and scale horizontally.
- Data warehouses integrate data from various sources consistently into a single decision support system. Warehouses caters to large volumes of data and commonly reside on big data servers.
- NoSQL databases are structurally diverse types of databases with a focus on high availability. NoSQL systems are best suited for large volumes of unstructured data.
- Graph databases are a type of NoSQL database with a focus on relationships between data points. With a topographical network structure, graph databases are the best system for exploring and discovering relationships.
- OLTP databases focus on short day-to-day transactions, supporting a large userbase with high data integrity and effectiveness in simultaneous queries.
- Open-source databases are open to modifications and free to use. Customizable user preferences and the low cost make this database type widely adopted.
- Cloud databases have all the traditional database features with cloud computing flexibility.
- Multi-model databases provide a single engine for working with multiple database model types.
- Document/JSON database is a NoSQL storage system which stores data in JSON documents.
- Self-driving cloud databases (autonomous databases) use machine learning to automate various tasks in the DBMS.
- Components of a Database
- Five main components make up a database system.
- Hardware
- Hardware encompasses the physical devices that connect computers with the real world. When it comes to databases, servers, storage disks, and various data collection devices include the hardware needed to run and populate a database.
- Software
- The software includes a wide array of programs used to access, manipulate, and control the databases. On the lower levels, the software includes the operating systems on which the databases reside, the network for communication with the databases, and the software to access the data.
- Data
- Data is the essential fact about an item or event which the database can save. The data requires processing to gain meaning and become information. Additionally, processing extracts insightful details from the data and aids in decision-making procedures.
- Procedures
- Database procedures include all the functions operating within a storage. Whether it’s regular backups, generating reports, and other day-to-day operations, procedures are an instruction set run in the database management system.
- Database Access Language
- The database access language is the programming language used to insert, update, delete and modify data stored in a database. Databases execute queries in the database access language directly.
- What is a Database Management System (DBMS)?
- A database management system (DBMS) serves as the interface between the user (or applications) and the database. The program allows direct communication with the database, permitting data retrieval, updates, optimization, and the overall management of the information stored in the database.
- What is a Database Server?
- A database server is a dedicated server that provides services to a client through database applications. One part of the server stores the DBMS, while another stores the database itself. Usually, database servers have a large storage capacity and many memory sticks.
- Why are Databases Important?
- A database system stores essential data about a business: the data, when analyzed, becomes valuable information about a company and helps in the decision-making process.
- Likewise, a database helps build an archive about the business, making a company more robust and aware of where it’s headed when making choices. Storing data about an interaction helps provide insight into information to help the company develop further and increase profits.
- There are many advantages when using a system with a database:
- Independence between programs and data. Separating metadata from applications that use data is a key attribute. The main database characteristic is the ability to change and transfer an organization’s data to a different computer system without changing the programs that process the information.
- Minimal data redundancy. Databases address the challenge of data repetition. Information integrates into one logical structure, and every piece of data repeats minimally. However, databases do not eliminate redundancies entirely. The system allows a database designer to plan the extent of redundancies depending on the use case.
- Note: Data redundancies are desirable in some cases and increase database performance. For example, redundancies increase search speed.
- Improved data sharing. Databases are a company resource that many employees and sectors use. Specific internal and external users operate the database, and each person or group has specialized views of the data.
- Greater data security. A DBMS has administrative functions which help control the security over sensitive information through privileges and user roles.
- Increased application development productivity. Developing new applications is faster thanks to database systems. A programmer can concentrate on functions necessary for a new application without having to define data. A DBMS helps automate activities such as the design and implementation of a database.
- Common Database Challenges
- Databases contain challenges, risks, and expenses when building the system.
- The Future of Databases
- The technology with the most potential impact for the future of databases is autonomous databases. Machine learning helps fully automate provisioning, management, tuning, and upgrades to a database. Automation additionally helps put a more significant focus on database security, which is the biggest challenge the systems face in the future.
- Conclusion
- This article provided an insight into database history, database components, and how and when to databases are used. Next, read about database servers in our comprehensive article: What Is a Database Server & What Is It Used For?
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- Milica Dancuk
- Milica Dancuk is a technical writer at phoenixNAP who is passionate about programming. Her background in Electrical Engineering and Computing combined with her teaching experience give her the ability to easily explain complex technical concepts through her content.
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- A quick review of the present need to store massive chunks of data relevant to multiple related or unrelated categories, reveals that databases must be highly effective at what they are designed to do.
- This is not only because of the amount of data being continuously revised or modified that we are dealing with; the dynamics of it aren’t of sole interest anymore. It’s because of the social value that every individual has assigned to them: databases are the literal backbone of a client’s lifestyle or a business’s worth.
- Designing different types of databases lie at the core of the functionality that they provide to the users. Since data is a dynamic entity, the way it is stored varies a lot. It is also the reason behind companies designing their own types of databases that comply with their needs.
- In this article, we shall be looking at the most commonly used databases. They are namely:
- Hierarchical databases
- Network databases
- Object-oriented databases
- Relational databases
- NoSQL databases
- 1. Hierarchical Databases :
- Just as in any hierarchy, this database follows the progression of data being categorized in ranks or levels, wherein data is categorized based on a common point of linkage. As a result, two entities of data will be lower in rank and the commonality would assume a higher rank. Refer to the diagram below:
- Do note how Departments and Administration are entirely unlike each other and yet fall under the domain of a University. They are elements that form this hierarchy.
- Another perspective advises visualizing the data being organized in a parent-child relationship, which upon addition of multiple data elements would resemble a tree. The child records are linked to the parent record using a field, and so the parent record is allowed multiple child records. However, vice versa is not possible.
- Notice that due to such a structure, hierarchical databases are not easily salable; the addition of data elements requires a lengthy traversal through the database.
- 2. Network Databases :
- In Layman’s terms, a network database is a hierarchical database, but with a major tweak. The child records are given the freedom to associate with multiple parent records. As a result, a network or net of database files linked with multiple threads is observed. Notice how the Student, Faculty, and Resources elements each have two-parent records, which are Departments and Clubs.
- Certainly, a complex framework, network databases are more capable of representing two-directional relationships. Also, conceptual simplicity favors the utilization of a simpler database management language.
- The disadvantage lies in the inability to alter the structure due to its complexity and also in it being highly structurally dependent.
- 3.Object-Oriented Databases :
- Those familiar with the Object-Oriented Programming Paradigm would be able to relate to this model of databases easily. Information stored in a database is capable of being represented as an object which response as an instance of the database model. Therefore, the object can be referenced and called without any difficulty. As a result, the workload on the database is substantially reduced.
- In the chart above, we have different objects linked to one another using methods; one can get the address of the Person (represented by the Person Object) using the livesAt() method. Furthermore, these objects have attributes which are in fact the data elements that need to be defined in the database.
- An example of such a model is the Berkeley DB software library which uses the same conceptual background to deliver quick and highly efficient responses to database queries from the embedded database.
- 4. Relational Databases :
- Considered the most mature of all databases, these databases lead in the production line along with their management systems. In this database, every piece of information has a relationship with every other piece of information. This is on account of every data value in the database having a unique identity in the form of a record.
- Note that all data is tabulated in this model. Therefore, every row of data in the database is linked with another row using a primary key. Similarly, every table is linked with another table using a foreign key.
- Refer to the diagram below and notice how the concept of ‘Keys’ is used to link two tables.
- Due to this introduction of tables to organize data, it has become exceedingly popular. In consequence, they are widely integrated into Web-Ap interfaces to serve as ideal repositories for user data. What makes it further interesting is the ease in mastering it, since the language used to interact with the database is simple (SQL in this case) and easy to comprehend.
- It is also worth being aware of the fact that in Relational databases, scaling and traversing through data is quite a light-weighted task in comparison to Hierarchical Databases.
- 5. NoSQL Databases :
- A NoSQL originally referring to non SQL or non-relational is a database that provides a mechanism for storage and retrieval of data. This data is modeled in means other than the tabular relations used in relational databases.
- A NoSQL database includes simplicity of design, simpler horizontal scaling to clusters of machines, and finer control over availability. The data structures used by NoSQL databases are different from those used by default in relational databases which makes some operations faster in NoSQL. The suitability of a given NoSQL database depends on the problem it should solve. Data structures used by NoSQL databases are sometimes also viewed as more flexible than relational database tables.
- MongoDB falls in the category of NoSQL document-based database.
- Advantages of NoSQL –
- There are many advantages of working with NoSQL databases such as MongoDB and Cassandra. The main advantages are high scalability and high availability.
- Disadvantages of NoSQL –
- NoSQL has the following disadvantages.
- NoSQL is an open-source database.
- GUI is not available
- Backup is a weak point for some NoSQL databases like MongoDB.
- Large document size.
- These are but a few types of database structures which represent the fundamental concepts extensively used in the industry. However, as mentioned earlier, clients tend to focus on creating databases which would suit their own needs; to store data in a schema which showcases a variable functionality based on its blueprint. Hence, the scope for development in reference to databases and database management systems is bright.
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Oracle Database 10.2, 11.x, 12.x, and 18c are available as a media or FTP request for those customers who own a valid Oracle Database product license for any edition. To request access to these releases, follow the instructions in Oracle Support Document 1071023.1 (Requesting Physical Shipment or Download URL for Software Media) from My Oracle Support. NOTE: for Oracle Database 10.2, you should request 10.2.0.1 even if you want to install a later patch set. Once you install 10.2.0.1 you can then apply any 10.2 patch set. Similarly, for 11.1 request 11.1.0.6 which must be applied before installing 11.1.0.7. Patch sets can be downloaded from the Patches and Updates tab on My Oracle Support.
Previous Database Release Software
Oracle Database 10.2, 11.x, 12.x, and 18c are available as a media or FTP request for those customers who own a valid Oracle Database product license for any edition. To request access to these releases, follow the instructions in Oracle Support Document 1071023.1 (Requesting Physical Shipment or Download URL for Software Media) from My Oracle Support. NOTE: for Oracle Database 10.2, you should request 10.2.0.1 even if you want to install a later patch set. Once you install 10.2.0.1 you can then apply any 10.2 patch set. Similarly, for 11.1 request 11.1.0.6 which must be applied before installing 11.1.0.7. Patch sets can be downloaded from the Patches and Updates tab on My Oracle Support.
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- mysql rac
Business has continuously desired to derive insights from information to make reliable, smarter, real-time, fact-based decisions. As firms rely more on data and databases, information and data processing is the core of many business operations and business decisions. The faith in the database is total. None of the day-to-day company services can run without the underlying database platforms. As a consequence, the necessity on scalability and performance of database system software is more critical than ever. The principal benefits of the clustered database system are scalability and high availability. In this blog, we will try to compare Oracle RAC and Galera Cluster in the light of these two aspects. Real Application Clusters (RAC) is Oracle’s premium solution to clustering Oracle databases and provides High Availability and Scalability. Galera Cluster is the most popular clustering technology for MySQL and MariaDB.
Architecture Overview
Oracle RAC uses Oracle Clusterware software to bind multiple servers. Oracle Clusterware is a cluster management solution that is integrated with Oracle Database, but it can also be used with other services, not only the database. The Oracle Clusterware is an additional software installed on servers running the same operating system, which lets the servers to be chained together to operate as if they were one server.
Oracle Clusterware watches the instance and automatically restarts it if a crash occurs. If your application is well designed, you may not experience any service interruption. Only a group of sessions (those connected to the failed instance) is affected by the failure. The blackout can be efficiently masked to the end user using advanced RAC features like Fast Application Notification and the Oracle client’s Fast Connection Failover. Oracle Clusterware controls node membership and prevents split brain symptoms in which two or more instances attempt to control the instance.
Galera Cluster is a synchronous active-active database clustering technology for MySQL and MariaDB. Galera Cluster differs from what is known as Oracle’s MySQL Cluster – NDB. MariaDB cluster is based on the multi-master replication plugin provided by Codership. Since version 5.5, the Galera plugin (wsrep API) is an integral part of MariaDB. Percona XtraDB Cluster (PXC) is also based on the Galera plugin. The Galera plugin architecture stands on three core layers: certification, replication, and group communication framework. Certification layer prepares the write-sets and does the certification checks on them, guaranteeing that they can be applied. Replication layer manages the replication protocol and provides the total ordering capability. Group Communication Framework implements a plugin architecture which allows other systems to connect via gcomm back-end schema.
To keep the state identical across the cluster, the wsrep API uses a Global Transaction ID. GTID unique identifier is created and associated with each transaction committed on the database node. In Oracle RAC, various database instances share access to resources such as data blocks in the buffer cache to enqueue data blocks. Access to the shared resources between RAC instances needs to be coordinated to avoid conflict. To organize shared access to these resources, the distributed cache maintains information such as data block ID, which RAC instance holds the current version of this data block, and the lock mode in which each instance contains the data block.
Data Storage Key Concepts
Oracle RAC relies on a distributed disk architecture. The database files, control files and online redo logs for the database need be accessible to each node in the cluster. There is a variation of ways to configure shared storage including directly attached disks, Storage Area Networks (SAN), and Network Attached Storage (NAS) and Oracle ASM. Two most popular are OCFS and ASM. Oracle Cluster File System (OCFS) is a shared file system designed specifically for Oracle RAC. OCFS eliminates the requirement that Oracle database files be connected to logical drives and enables all nodes to share a single Oracle Home ASM, RAW Device. Oracle ASM is Oracle’s advised storage management solution that provides an alternative to conventional volume managers, file systems, and raw devices. The Oracle ASM provides a virtualization layer between the database and storage. It treats multiple disks as a single disk group and lets you dynamically add or remove drives while maintaining databases online.
There is no need to build sophisticated shared disk storage for Galera, as each node has its full copy of data. However it is a good practice to make the storage reliable with battery-backed write caches.
Cluster nodes communication and cache
Oracle Real Application Clusters has a shared cache architecture, it utilizes Oracle Grid Infrastructure to enable the sharing of server and storage resources. Communication between nodes is the critical aspect of cluster integrity. Each node must have at least two network adapters or network interface cards: one for the public network interface, and one for the interconnect. Each cluster node is connected to all other nodes via a private high-speed network, also recognized as the cluster interconnect.
The private network is typically formed with Gigabit Ethernet, but for high-volume environments, many vendors offer low-latency, high-bandwidth solutions designed for Oracle RAC. Linux also extends a means of bonding multiple physical NICs into a single virtual NIC to provide increased bandwidth and availability.
While the default approach to connecting Galera nodes is to use a single NIC per host, you can have more than one card. ClusterControl can assist you with such setup. The main difference is the bandwidth requirement on the interconnect. Oracle RAC ships blocks of data between instances, so it places a heavier load on the interconnect as compared to Galera write-sets (which consist of a list of operations).
With Redundant Interconnect Usage in RAC, you can identify multiple interfaces to use for the private cluster network, without the need of using bonding or other technologies. This functionality is available starting with Oracle Database 11gR2. If you use the Oracle Clusterware excessive interconnect feature, then you must use IPv4 addresses for the interfaces (UDP is a default).
To manage high availability, each cluster node is assigned a virtual IP address (VIP). In the event of node failure, the failed node’s IP address can be reassigned to a surviving node to allow applications continue to reach the database through the same IP address.
Sophisticated network setup is necessary to Oracle’s Cache Fusion technology to couple the physical memory in each host into a single cache. Oracle Cache Fusion provides data stored in the cache of one Oracle instance to be accessed by any other instance by transporting it across the private network. It also protects data integrity and cache coherency by transmitting locking and supplementary synchronization information beyond cluster nodes.
On top of the described network setup, you can set a single database address for your application – Single Client Access Name (SCAN). The primary purpose of SCAN is to provide ease of connection management. For instance, you can add new nodes to the cluster without changing your client connection string. This functionality is because Oracle will automatically distribute requests accordingly based on the SCAN IPs which point to the underlying VIPs. Scan listeners do the bridge between clients and the underlying local listeners which are VIP-dependent.
For Galera Cluster, the equivalent of SCAN would be adding a database proxy in front of the Galera nodes. The proxy would be a single point of contact for applications, it can blacklist failed nodes and route queries to healthy nodes. The proxy itself can be made redundant with Keepalived and Virtual IP.
Failover and data recovery
The main difference between Oracle RAC and MySQL Galera Cluster is that Galera is shared nothing architecture. Instead of shared disks, Galera uses certification based replication with group communication and transaction ordering to achieve synchronous replication. A database cluster should be able to survive a loss of a node, although it’s achieved in different ways. In case of Galera, the critical aspect is the number of nodes, Galera requires a quorum to stay operational. A three node cluster can survive the crash of one node. With more nodes in your cluster, your availability will grow. Oracle RAC doesn’t require a quorum to stay operational after a node crash. It is because of the access to distributed storage that keeps consistent information about cluster state. However, your data storage could be a potential point of failure in your high availability plan. While it’s reasonably straightforward task to have Galera cluster nodes spread across geolocation data centers, it wouldn’t be that easy with RAC. Oracle RAC requires additional high-end disk mirroring however, basic RAID like redundancy can be achieved inside an ASM diskgroup.
| Disk Group Type | Supported Mirroring Levels | Default Mirroring Level |
|---|---|---|
| External redundancy | Unprotected (none) | Unprotected |
| Normal redundancy | Two-way, three-way, unprotected (none) | Two-way |
| High redundancy | Three-way | Three-way |
| Flex redundancy | Two-way, three-way, unprotected (none) | Two-way (newly-created) |
| Extended redundancy | Two-way, three-way, unprotected (none) | Two-way |
Locking Schemes
In a single-user database, a user can alter data without concern for other sessions modifying the same data at the same time. However, in a multi-user database multi-node environment, this become more tricky. A multi-user database must provide the following:
- data concurrency – the assurance that users can access data at the same time,
- data consistency – the assurance that each user sees a consistent view of the data.
Cluster instances require three main types of concurrency locking:
- Data concurrency reads on different instances,
- Data concurrency reads and writes on different instances,
- Data concurrency writes on different instances.
Oracle lets you choose the policy for locking, either pessimistic or optimistic, depending on your requirements. To obtain concurrency locking, RAC has two additional buffers. They are Global Cache Service (GCS) and Global Enqueue Service (GES). These two services cover the Cache Fusion process, resource transfers, and resource escalations among the instances. GES include cache locks, dictionary locks, transaction locks and table locks. GCS maintains the block modes and block transfers between the instances.
In Galera cluster, each node has its storage and buffers. When a transaction is started, database resources local to that node are involved. At commit, the operations that are part of that transaction are broadcasted as part of a write-set, to the rest of the group. Since all nodes have the same state, the write-set will either be successful on all nodes or it will fail on all nodes.
Galera Cluster uses at the cluster-level optimistic concurrency control, which can appear in transactions that result in a COMMIT aborting. The first commit wins. When aborts occur at the cluster level, Galera Cluster gives a deadlock error. This may or may not impact your application architecture. High number of rows to replicate in a single transaction would impact node responses, although there are techniques to avoid such behavior.
Hardware & Software Requirements
Configuring both clusters hardware doesn’t require potent resources. Minimal Oracle RAC cluster configuration would be satisfied by two servers with two CPUs, physical memory at least 1.5 GB of RAM, an amount of swap space equal to the amount of RAM and two Gigabit Ethernet NICs. Galera’s minimum node configuration is three nodes (one of nodes can be an arbitrator, gardb), each with 1GHz single-core CPU 512MB RAM, 100 Mbps network card. While these are the minimal, we can safely say that in both cases you would probably like to have more resources for your production system.
Each node stores software so you would need to prepare several gigabytes of your storage. Oracle and Galera both have the ability to individually patch the nodes by taking them down one at a time. This rolling patch avoids a complete application outage as there are always database nodes available to handle traffic.
What is important to mention is that a production Galera cluster can easily run on VM’s or basic bare metal, while RAC would need investment in sophisticated shared storage and fiber communication.
Monitoring and Management
Oracle Enterprise Manager is the favored approach for monitoring Oracle RAC and Oracle Clusterware. Oracle Enterprise Manager is an Oracle Web-based unified management system for monitoring and administering your database environment. It’s part of Oracle Enterprise License and should be installed on separate server. Cluster control monitoring and management is done via combination on crsctl and srvctl commands which are part of cluster binaries. Below you can find a couple of example commands.
Clusterware Resource Status Check:
crsctl status resource -t (or shorter: crsctl stat res -t)Example:
$ crsctl stat res ora.test1.vip
NAME=ora.test1.vip
TYPE=ora.cluster_vip_net1.type
TARGET=ONLINE
STATE=ONLINE on test1Check the status of the Oracle Clusterware stack:
crsctl check clusterExample:
$ crsctl check cluster -all
*****************************************************************
node1:
CRS-4537: Cluster Ready Services is online
CRS-4529: Cluster Synchronization Services is online
CRS-4533: Event Manager is online
*****************************************************************
node2:
CRS-4537: Cluster Ready Services is online
CRS-4529: Cluster Synchronization Services is online
CRS-4533: Event Manager is onlineCheck the status of Oracle High Availability Services and the Oracle Clusterware stack on the local server:
crsctl check crsExample:
$ crsctl check crs
CRS-4638: Oracle High Availablity Services is online
CRS-4537: Cluster Ready Services is online
CRS-4529: Cluster Synchronization Services is online
CRS-4533: Event Manager is onlineStop Oracle High Availability Services on the local server.
crsctl stop hasStop Oracle High Availability Services on the local server.
crsctl start hasDisplays the status of node applications:
srvctl status nodeappsDisplays the configuration information for all SCAN VIPs
srvctl config scanExample:
srvctl config scan -scannumber 1
SCAN name: testscan, Network: 1
Subnet IPv4: 192.51.100.1/203.0.113.46/eth0, static
Subnet IPv6:
SCAN 1 IPv4 VIP: 192.51.100.195
SCAN VIP is enabled.
SCAN VIP is individually enabled on nodes:
SCAN VIP is individually disabled on nodes:The Cluster Verification Utility (CVU) performs system checks in preparation for installation, patch updates, or other system changes:
cluvfy comp ocrExample:
Verifying OCR integrity
Checking OCR integrity...
Checking the absence of a non-clustered configurationl...
All nodes free of non-clustered, local-only configurations
ASM Running check passed. ASM is running on all specified nodes
Checking OCR config file “/etc/oracle/ocr.loc"...
OCR config file “/etc/oracle/ocr.loc" check successful
Disk group for ocr location “+DATA" available on all the nodes
NOTE:
This check does not verify the integrity of the OCR contents. Execute ‘ocrcheck' as a privileged user to verify the contents of OCR.
OCR integrity check passed
Verification of OCR integrity was successful.Galera nodes and the cluster requires the wsrep API to report several statuses, which is exposed. There are currently 34 dedicated status variables can be viewed with SHOW STATUS statement.
mysql> SHOW STATUS LIKE 'wsrep_%';| wsrep_apply_oooe wsrep_apply_oool wsrep_cert_deps_distance wsrep_cluster_conf_id wsrep_cluster_size wsrep_cluster_state_uuid wsrep_cluster_status wsrep_connected wsrep_flow_control_paused wsrep_flow_control_paused_ns wsrep_flow_control_recv | wsrep_local_send_queue_avg wsrep_local_state_uuid wsrep_protocol_version wsrep_provider_name wsrep_provider_vendor wsrep_provider_version wsrep_flow_control_sent wsrep_gcomm_uuid wsrep_last_committed wsrep_local_bf_aborts wsrep_local_cert_failures | wsrep_local_commits wsrep_local_index wsrep_local_recv_queue wsrep_local_recv_queue_avg wsrep_local_replays wsrep_local_send_queue wsrep_ready wsrep_received wsrep_received_bytes wsrep_replicated wsrep_replicated_bytes wsrep_thread_count |
The administration of MySQL Galera Cluster in many aspects is very similar. There are just few exceptions like bootstrapping the cluster from initial node or recovering nodes via SST or IST operations.
Bootstrapping cluster:
$ service mysql bootstrap # sysvinit
$ service mysql start --wsrep-new-cluster # sysvinit
$ galera_new_cluster # systemd
$ mysqld_safe --wsrep-new-cluster # command lineThe equivalent Web-based, out of the box solution to manage and monitor Galera Cluster is ClusterControl. It provides a web-based interface to deploy clusters, monitors key metrics, provides database advisors, and take care of management tasks like backup and restore, automatic patching, traffic encryption and availability management.
Restrictions on Workload
Oracle provides SCAN technology which we found missing in Galera Cluster. The benefit of SCAN is that the client’s connection information does not need to change if you add or remove nodes or databases in the cluster. When using SCAN, the Oracle database randomly connects to one of the available SCAN listeners (typically three) in a round robin fashion and balances the connections between them. Two kinds load balancing can be configured: client side, connect time load balancing and on the server side, run time load balancing. Although there is nothing similar within Galera cluster itself, the same functionality can be addressed with additional software like ProxySQL, HAProxy, Maxscale combined with Keepalived.
When it comes to application workload design for Galera Cluster, you should avoid conflicting updates on the same row, as it leads to deadlocks across the cluster. Avoid bulk inserts or updates, as these might be larger than the maximum allowed writeset. That might also cause cluster stalls.
Designing Oracle HA with RAC you need to keep in mind that RAC only protects against server failure, and you need to mirror the storage and have network redundancy. Modern web applications require access to location-independent data services, and because of RAC’s storage architecture limitations, it can be tricky to achieve. You also need to spend a notable amount of time to gain relevant knowledge to manage the environment; it is a long process. On the application workload side, there are some drawbacks. Distributing separated read or write operations on the same dataset is not optimal because latency is added by supplementary internode data exchange. Things like partitioning, sequence cache, and sorting operations should be reviewed before migrating to RAC.
Multi data-center Redundancy
According to the Oracle documentation, the maximum distance between two boxes connected in a point-to-point fashion and running synchronously can be only 10 km. Using specialized devices, this distance can be increased to 100 km.
Galera Cluster is well known for its multi-datacenter replication capabilities. It has rich support for Wider Area Networks network settings. It can be configured for high network latency by taking Round-Trip Time (RTT) measurements between cluster nodes and adjusting necessary parameters. The wsrep_provider_options parameters allow you to configure settings like suspect_timeout, interactive_timeout, join_retrans_timouts and many more.
Using Galera and RAC in Cloud
Per Oracle note www.oracle.com/technetwork/database/options/…/rac-cloud-support-2843861.pdf no third-party cloud currently meets Oracle’s requirements regarding natively provided shared storage. “Native” in this context means that the cloud provider must support shared storage as part of their infrastructure as per Oracle’s support policy.
Thanks to its shared nothing architecture, which is not tied to a sophisticated storage solution, Galera cluster can be easily deployed in a cloud environment. Things like:
- optimized network protocol,
- topology-aware replication,
- traffic encryption,
- detection and automatic eviction of unreliable nodes,
makes cloud migration process more reliable.
Licenses and Hidden Costs
Oracle licensing is a complex topic and would require a separate blog article. The cluster factor makes it even more difficult. The cost goes up as we have to add some options to license a complete RAC solution. Here we just want to highlight what to expect and where to find more information.
RAC is a feature of Oracle Enterprise Edition license. Oracle Enterprise license is split into two types, per named user and per processor. If you consider Enterprise Edition with per core license, then the single core cost is RAC 23,000 USD + Oracle DB EE 47,500 USD, and you still need to add a ~ 22% support fee. We would like to refer to a great blog on pricing found on https://flashdba.com/2013/09/18/the-real-cost-of-oracle-rac/.
Flashdba calculated the price of a four node Oracle RAC. The total amount was 902,400 USD plus additional 595,584 USD for three years DB maintenance, and that does not include features like partitioning or in-memory database, all that with 60% Oracle discount.
Galera Cluster is an open source solution that anyone can run for free. Subscriptions are available for production implementations that require vendor support. A good TCO calculation can be found at https://severalnines.com/blog/database-tco-calculating-total-cost-ownership-mysql-management.
Conclusion
While there are significant differences in architecture, both clusters share the main principles and can achieve similar goals. Oracle enterprise product comes with everything out of the box (and it’s price). With a cost in the range of >1M USD as seen above, it is a high-end solution that many enterprises would not be able to afford. Galera Cluster can be described as a decent high availability solution for the masses. In certain cases, Galera may well be a very good alternative to Oracle RAC. One drawback is that you have to build your own stack, although that can be completely automated with ClusterControl. We’d love to hear your thoughts on this.
MySQL Cluster CGE
MySQL Cluster is the distributed database combining linear scalability and high availability. It provides in-memory real-time access with transactional consistency across partitioned and distributed datasets. It is designed for mission critical applications.
MySQL Cluster has replication between clusters across multiple geographical sites built-in. A shared nothing architecture with data locality awareness make it the perfect choice for running on commodity hardware and in globally distributed cloud infrastructure.
MySQL Cluster provides you with the following benefits:
MySQL Cluster 8.0
NDB 8.0 is a completely new generation of the world’s highest throughput transactional datastore MySQL NDB Cluster. MySQL NDB Cluster 8.0 delivers better performance and higher scalability for managing larger and mission-critical applications. Some of the key highlights of 8.0 are:
- NDB is fully aligned with MySQL Server 8.0 and includes the latest server maintenance release
- Dynamic Memory Management allocates resources automatically
- Up to 4 replicas of data are fully supported now
- Cluster capacity has dramatically increased – store 100+ TB in a single cluster
- Once again we raised the performance bar for cluster’s parallel and distributed SQL execution
- Synchronized privileges simplifies the management of user privileges across all MySQL Servers of a cluster
Proven daily and serving billions
Billions of users get in contact with MySQL Cluster every day during every phone call. MySQL Cluster’s distributed, shared-nothing architecture is used at the core of mobile phone networks, authentication systems and gaming platforms.
99.999% Availability
Cluster maintains multiple copies of its dataset for maximum availability. MySQL Cluster has proven to deliver 99.999% availability ensuring resilience to failures and the ability to perform scheduled maintenance without downtime. Learn More »
In-memory Real Time Database
Using memory-optimized tables, MySQL Cluster provides real-time response time and throughput meet the needs of the most demanding web, telecommunications and enterprise applications. Learn More »
Auto-partitioning and Scalability
MySQL Cluster automatically partitions tables across nodes (shards), enabling databases to scale horizontally on low cost, commodity hardware while maintaining complete application transparency. Learn More »
Parallel Distributed Query Engine
MySQL Cluster’s unique parallel query engine and distributed cross partition queries give an always consistent access to the entire distributed and partitioned dataset making scalable applications programing straightforward and simple. Learn More »
Data Locality Awareness
Cluster has data locality awareness build into its APIs. No name or data management nodes are needed. Point selects go to the correct node, and the closest copy of the dataset.
SQL & NoSQL APIs
MySQL Cluster enables users to blend the best of both relational and NoSQL technologies into solutions that reduce cost, risk and complexity. Learn More »
Multi-site Clusters with Active Active Geographical Replication
Update-anywhere geographic replication enables multiple clusters to be distributed geographically for disaster recovery and the scalability of global web services.
Online Scaling & Schema Upgrades
To support continuous operation, MySQL Cluster allows on-line addition of nodes and updates to live database schema to support rapidly evolving and highly dynamic workloads.
MySQL Cluster Auto-Installer
Get MySQL Cluster up and running in minutes! Graphically configure and provision a production-grade cluster, automatically tuned for your workload and environment. Learn More »
MySQL Cluster Manager
MySQL Cluster Manager simplifies the creation and management of the MySQL Cluster Carrier Grade Edition database by automating common management tasks. Learn More »
24×7 Technical Support
Get information about your iPhone
View overall storage availability and storage used per app
Go to Settings 
> General > iPhone Storage.
See the Apple Support articles How to check the storage on your iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch and Manage your iCloud storage.
See battery usage
Go to Settings > Battery to see the elapsed time since iPhone was charged as well as battery usage by app.
You can also display battery level as a percentage, turn Low Power Mode on or off, and check your battery’s health.
View call time and cellular usage
Go to Settings > Cellular. See View or change cellular data settings on iPhone.
See more information about iPhone
Go to Settings > General > About. The items you can view include:
Name
iOS software version
Model name
Part and model numbers. To the right of Model, the part number appears. To see the model number, tap the part number.
Serial number
Number of songs, videos, photos, and apps
Capacity and available storage space
Wi-Fi and Bluetooth addresses
Cellular network
Carrier settings. To the right of Carrier, the carrier settings version number appears. To see additional carrier-specific information, tap the version number. Contact your carrier for more details.
IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)
ICCID (Integrated Circuit Card Identifier, or Smart Card) for GSM networks
MEID (Mobile Equipment Identifier) for CDMA networks
Modem firmware
To copy the serial number and other identifiers, touch and hold the identifier until Copy appears.
To see Legal & Regulatory information (including legal notices and license, warranty, and RF exposure information) and regulatory marks, go to Settings > General > Legal & Regulatory.
On supported models, you can also find the IMEI on the SIM card tray and the model number in the SIM tray opening.
View or turn off diagnostic information
Go to Settings > Privacy & Security > Analytics & Improvements.
To help Apple improve products and services, iPhone sends diagnostic and usage data. This data doesn’t personally identify you, but may include location
TV
TV
How to find my TV
Explore Samsung TVs that meet your needs
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